What percentage of its chromosomes does a sperm cell contribute to a new embryo?
Figure ii: Examples of polytene chromosomes
Pairing of homologous chromatids results in hundreds to thousands of private chromatid copies aligned tightly in parallel to produce giant, "polytene" chromosomes.
© 2007 Nature Publishing Group Novikov, D. et al. Loftier-pressure treatment of polytene chromosomes improves structural resolution. Nature Methods iv, 483 (2007). All rights reserved. 
Although he did not know information technology, Walther Flemming actually observed spermatozoa undergoing meiosis in 1882, but he mistook this process for mitosis. Nonetheless, Flemming did notice that, unlike during regular cell division, chromosomes occurred in pairs during spermatozoan evolution. This observation, followed in 1902 past Sutton's meticulous measurement of chromosomes in grasshopper sperm prison cell development, provided definitive clues that cell division in gametes was not only regular mitosis. Sutton demonstrated that the number of chromosomes was reduced in spermatozoan cell partitioning, a procedure referred to as reductive division. Every bit a result of this process, each gamete that Sutton observed had one-half the genetic information of the original cell. A few years later, researchers J. B. Farmer and J. E. S. Moore reported that this process—otherwise known as meiosis—is the primal means past which animals and plants produce gametes (Farmer & Moore, 1905).
The greatest impact of Sutton'due south work has far more to exercise with providing evidence for Mendel's principle of independent assortment than anything else. Specifically, Sutton saw that the position of each chromosome at the midline during metaphase was random, and that there was never a consistent maternal or paternal side of the prison cell division. Therefore, each chromosome was contained of the other. Thus, when the parent jail cell separated into gametes, the set of chromosomes in each daughter cell could contain a mixture of the parental traits, but not necessarily the same mixture as in other daughter cells.
To illustrate this concept, consider the diverseness derived from just three hypothetical chromosome pairs, equally shown in the following example (Hirsch, 1963). Each pair consists of two homologues: one maternal and one paternal. Hither, majuscule letters represent the maternal chromosome, and lowercase letters represent the paternal chromosome:
- Pair 1: A and a
- Pair 2: B and b
- Pair 3: C and c
When these chromosome pairs are reshuffled through independent assortment, they can produce eight possible combinations in the resulting gametes:
- A B C
- A B c
- A b c
- A b C
- a B C
- a B c
- a b C
- a b c
A mathematical calculation based on the number of chromosomes in an organism will also provide the number of possible combinations of chromosomes for each gamete. In particular, Sutton pointed out that the independence of each chromosome during meiosis means that there are twon possible combinations of chromosomes in gametes, with "n" being the number of chromosomes per gamete. Thus, in the previous example of three chromosome pairs, the calculation is 23, which equals 8. Furthermore, when yous consider all the possible pairings of male and female gametes, the variation in zygotes is (2north)2, which results in some fairly large numbers.
But what about chromosome reassortment in humans? Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. That means that ane person could produce 223 different gametes. In addition, when you summate the possible combinations that emerge from the pairing of an egg and a sperm, the upshot is (ii23)2 possible combinations. However, some of these combinations produce the same genotype (for example, several gametes tin can produce a heterozygous individual). Equally a result, the chances that ii siblings will have the same combination of chromosomes (assuming no recombination) is well-nigh (3/8)23, or one in six.27 billion. Of course, there are more than 23 segregating units (Hirsch, 2004).
While calculations of the random array of chromosomes and the mixture of different gametes are impressive, random assortment is non the only source of variation that comes from meiosis. In fact, these calculations are ideal numbers based on chromosomes that actually stay intact throughout the meiotic process. In reality, crossing-over between chromatids during prophase I of meiosis mixes upwards pieces of chromosomes between homologue pairs, a phenomenon called recombination. Because recombination occurs every time gametes are formed, we tin expect that it will always add together to the possible genotypes predicted from the 2n calculation. In addition, the variety of gametes becomes even more unpredictable and complex when we consider the contribution of factor linkage. Some genes will always cosegregate into gametes if they are tightly linked, and they will therefore show a very low recombination rate. While linkage is a force that tends to reduce independent assortment of sure traits, recombination increases this array. In fact, recombination leads to an overall increase in the number of units that assort independently, and this increases variation.
While in mitosis, genes are mostly transferred faithfully from i cellular generation to the next; in meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction, genes get mixed upward. Sexual reproduction actually expands the diverseness created past meiosis, because it combines the unlike varieties of parental genotypes. Thus, because of independent assortment, recombination, and sexual reproduction, there are trillions of possible genotypes in the human species.
Source: http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitosis-meiosis-and-inheritance-476
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